Batteries
A battery consists of one or more cells, each of which use stored chemical energy to produce electrical energy, There are many types of cells and these...
Power Transformers - An Introduction
One of the fundamental requirements of an alternating current distribution systems it to have the ability to change the magnitude of voltages. It is more...
Understanding Circuit Breaker Markings
IEC 60947 is the circuit breaker standard and covers the marking of breakers in detail. Any manufacturer following this standard should comply with the...
Equipment Verification (to IEC Standards)
One of the requirements to ensuring that everything works is to have equipment selected, manufactured and verified [tested] to IEC standards. Not all equipment...
Closed Doors
"I can live with doubt and uncertainty and not knowing. I think it is much more interesting to live not knowing than to have answers that might be wrong...
Operational Amplifier
The fundamental component of any analogue computer is the operational amplifier, or op amp. An operational amplifier (often called an op-amp,) is a high...
Lead Acid Batteries
Lead acid batteries are cost effect and reliable, making them suitable for many applications.This note examines topics of interest associated with the...
Fault Calculations - Typical Equipment Parameters
A frequent problem in fault calculations is the obtaining of equipment parameters. While it is always preferable to use the actual parameters of the equipment...
Lightning Risk Assessment (IEC 62305)
IEC 62305 'Protection against lightning' requires a risk assessment be carried out to determine the characteristics of any lightning protection system...
Low Voltage Fault Tables
The following tables provide quick order of magnitude fault levels for a a range of typical low voltage situations.