Most installations involve some form of lightning protection system which is connected to an earth electrode.  The function of the earth electrode is to...

The windings of many medium and small sized transformers are protected by restricted earth fault (REF) systems. The illustration shows the principal of...

When sizing cables nearly, everyone uses some form of software. This ranges from homespun spreadsheets to complex network analyses software. Each has its...

The fundamental component of any analogue computer is the operational amplifier, or op amp. An operational amplifier (often called an op-amp,) is a high...

A UPS is an uninterruptible power supply.  It is a device which maintains a continuous supply of electrical power, even in the event of failure of the...

Photovoltaic (PV) cells (sometimes called solar cells) convert solar energy into electrical energy.  Every year more and more PV systems are installed...

Depending where in the world you work, you are likely following one of two standards International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) National...

Following on from my post on railway electrification voltages, I thought an introduction to traction substations would be a good idea. Traction substations...

A frequent problem in fault calculations is the obtaining of equipment parameters.  While it is always preferable to use the actual parameters of the equipment...

Resistors are electronic components that oppose the flow of current.  Manufactured in various types and ranges they have a wide application to electronics...