The windings of many medium and small sized transformers are protected by restricted earth fault (REF) systems. The illustration shows the principal of...
Most installations involve some form of lightning protection system which is connected to an earth electrode. The function of the earth electrode is to...
Depending where in the world you work, you are likely following one of two standards International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) National...
The mobile phone was born in 1973. They were the size of a brick and weighed a couple of kg, making them difficult to fit into your pocket. At a few thousand...
The term 'N+1' relates to redundancy and simply means that if you required 'N' items of equipment for something to work, you would have one additional...
Alternating current (a.c.) is the backbone of modern electrical power distribution. In this article I’ll be pulling some of the more important concepts...
The image (reproduced from IEC 60909) shows a typical fault in an ac system. From the illustration it can seen that there is an initial dc component ...
The inventor of the first visible light-emitting diode makes history again this year as it begins to show customers a 40-watt replacement GE Energy Smart...
The following tables provide quick order of magnitude fault levels for a a range of typical low voltage situations.
A frequent problem in fault calculations is the obtaining of equipment parameters. While it is always preferable to use the actual parameters of the equipment...
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